Teacher education is an integral component of the educational system. It is intimately connected with society and is conditioned by the ethos, culture and character of a nation. The constitutional goals, the directive principles of the state policy, the socio-economic problems and the growth of knowledge, the emerging expectations and the changes operating in education, etc. call for an appropriate response from a futuristic education system and provide the perspective within which teacher education programmes need to be viewed.

When India attained freedom, the then existing educational system was accepted as such because it was thought that an abrupt departure from the same would be disturbing and destabilising. Thus a predisposition to retain the system acquired preponderance and all that was envisaged by way of changes was its rearrangement. Consequently, education including teacher education largely remained isolated from the needs and aspirations of the people. During the last five decades certain efforts have been made to indigenize the system. The gaps, however, are still wide and visible. The imperatives for building the bridges may be as follows:

- to build a national system of teacher education based on India's cultural ethos, its unity and diversity synchronising with change and continuity.

- to facilitate the realization of the constitutional goals and emergence of the new social order.

- to prepare professionally competent teachers to perform their roles effectively as per needs of the society.

- to upgrade the standard of teacher education, enhance the professional and social status of teachers and develop amongst them a sense of commitment.

These are but a few of the major concerns which call for an immediate action. A comprehensive, dynamic and responsive system of teacher education needs to be continually evolved keeping the overall scenario in view.

The need for improved levels of educational participation for overall progress is well recognised. The key role of educational institutions in realising it is reflected in a variety of initiatives taken to transform the nature and function of education -- both formal as well as non-formal. Universal accessibility to quality education is considered essential for development. This has necessitated improvement in the system of teacher education so as to prepare quality teachers.

Various Commissions and Committees appointed by the Central and the State Governments in recent decades have invariably emphasised the need for quality teacher education suited to the needs of the educational system. The Secondary Education Commission (1953) observed that a major factor responsible for the educational reconstruction at the secondary stage is teachers' professional training. The Education Commission (1964-66) stressed that 'in a world based on science and technology it is education that determines the level of prosperity, welfare and security of the people' and that 'a sound programme of professional education of teachers is essential for the qualitative improvement of education.'

India has a large system of education. There are nearly 5.98 lakh Primary Schools, 1.76 lakh Elementary Schools and 98 thousand High / Higher Secondary Schools in the country, about 1300 teacher education institutions for elementary teachers and nearly 700 colleges of education / university departments preparing teachers for secondary and higher secondary schools. Out of about 4.52 million teachers in the country nearly 3 million are teaching at the primary/ elementary level*. A sizeable number of them are untrained or under-trained. In certain regions, like the North-East, there are even under- qualified teachers. As far as in-service education is concerned the situation is not very encouraging. It is estimated that on an average 40% of the teachers are provided in-service teacher education once over a period of five years. Regarding non-formal education, though a number of models are in vogue in various states in the country, much more needs to be done to prepare teachers and other functionaries for the system.

The Programme of Action (POA 1992) has emphasised teacher education as a continuous process, its pre-service and in-service components being inseparable. The POA, among others, has pointed out the following in respect of teacher education :

In pursuance of the NPE 1986 a major step was taken by the Central Government to enhance the professional capacity of a large number of teacher education institutions. Nearly 430 District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) have already been established by 1997-98. The DIETs are charged with the responsibility of organising pre-service and in-service programmes in addition to being the nodal resource centres for elementary education at district level. Likewise, Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) and Institutions of Advanced Study in Education (IASEs) have been given the responsibility of introducing innovations in teacher education programmes at the secondary and higher secondary stages and in vocational education.

The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) as a non-statutory body (1973-1993) took several steps as regards quality improvement in teacher education. Its major contribution was to prepare Teacher Education Curriculum Framework in 1978. Consequently, teacher education curricula witnessed changes in teacher preparation programmes in various universities and boards in the country. A similar effort was made in 1988.

During the last decade, new thrusts have been posed due to rapid changes in the educational, political, social and economic contexts at the national and international levels. Curriculum reconstruction has also become imperative in the light of some perceptible gaps in teacher education. Teacher education by and large, is conventional in its nature and purpose. The integration of theory and practice and consequent curricular response to the requirements of the school system still remains inadequate. Teachers are prepared in competencies and skills which do not necessarily equip them for becoming professionally effective. Their familiarity with latest educational developments remains insufficient. Organised and stipulatory learning experiences whenever available, rarely contribute to enhancing teachers' capacities for self-directed life long learning. The system still prepares teachers who do not necessarily become professionally competent and committed at the completion of initial teacher preparation programmes. A large number of teacher training institutions do not practice what they preach. Several of the skills acquired and methodologies learnt are seldom practiced in actual school system. This highlights the need to bring realism and dynamism in the curriculum.

The Constitution of India solemnly resolves "to constitute India into a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic and secure to all its citizens: justice-social, economic and political; liberty of thought, expression, faith, belief and worship; equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the integrity of the nation." These are the main goals which the nation expects to be realised through education. Teacher preparation must not lose sight of this basic thrust so as to empower teachers to inculcate the same among the students.

In order to reinforce faith in democratic socialism, secularism, justice, liberty, freedom etc. the role of education needs to be understood in its true perspective. Democracy is a process of building consensus among the citizens on matters of common concern. It expects high morality from them, protects the interest and preserves their uniqueness, dignity and individuality. Quality of democracy depends on its citizens willing to discharge their responsibilities towards the self, the family, the community, the nation and humanity at large. Democracy is a way of life and its values need to be imbibed through education and practised in the day-to-day life. Democratic socialism attempts to achieve a synthesis between individual freedom and social compulsion and combines liberty with responsibility and authority with accountability. The Indian situation demands citizens capable of making conscious and purposive efforts directed towards social cohesion and living together harmoniously.

Indian Society is plural and heterogeneous with an underlying current of unity. The imposition of a homogeneous and uniform curriculum of teacher education may prove counter productive under this situation. Except for identifying certain basics and essentials, regional autonomy must be exercised for developing region/culture specific curriculum of teacher education. Indian reality demands that plurality should be used for strengthening national solidarity and social cohesion.

The Indian state is secular. The Indian society, however, is religious. To resolve this dichotomy between the state and polity, the principle of equal respect for all the religions* has been accepted. This is the essence of Indian secularism. The teachers themselves have to internalise the imperatives of secularism in national context and interpret the same effectively to the learners. That alone would develop the right attitudes among all citizens irrespective of their own backgrounds. In India religion is also the source of value and morality. The teachers have to develop values and morality in a different context. Teacher education has to respond to this reality.

Justice, liberty, equality of status and of opportunity and promoting fraternity constitute another set of inter-related goals. Justice protects the rights of the weak and ensures impartiality. To ensure justice and fulfil the constitutional commitments in this regard, certain positive and legal provisions have been made by the state. Special measures such as reservation in educational institutions, financial support, scholarships, hostel facilities, etc. have been extended to the under-privileged groups like Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes etc. It implies change in attitudes and values through education, in which the role of teachers needs to be stressed. Liberty of thought, expression, faith, belief and worship is another constitutional goal which education is expected to help realise. Indian Constitution ensures equality of status and opportunity to all its citizens. The objective is to minimise social and economic disparities, inequality of power and life chances by positive discrimination in favour of the weak. The education of teachers should equip them with the competencies needed to deal with discrimination, disparities and inequalities. Fraternity stands for acceptance of universal brotherhood, respect for human personality and feeling of oneness irrespective of linguistic, racial, cultural and religious diversities.

It is universally acknowledged that education is an effective means for social reconstruction and to a great extent it offers solutions to the problems a society is faced with. These problems may be economic, social, cultural, political, moral, ecological and educational. Since the teachers play a major role in education of children, their own education becomes a matter of vital concern. Teacher education must, therefore, create necessary awareness among teachers about their new roles and responsibilities.

Education of teachers needs to strengthen and stress upon the main attributes of a profession, such as, the systematic theory, rigourous training over a specified duration, authority, community sanction, ethical code and culture, generating knowledge through research and specialisation. It is acknowledged that formal professional training on continuous basis is necessary for becoming a good teacher as it caters to the development of one's personality and sharpening of communication skills and commitment to a code of conduct.

Economic Problems : Poverty, unemployment, and low rate of growth and productivity are some of the major economic problems of the country which have led to the compulsions of the backward economy. These problems seek immediate solution and demand a realistic co-ordination between economic planning and manpower planning. Education can help find solutions if it is properly coordinated with manpower needs. Introduction of work education and vocationalisation of education in secondary schools will have to be given a modern and meaningful direction. The attitude towards the work culture needs a transformation. The Indian society needs education with special emphasis on science and technology, vocational inputs and realistic work experiences. Teacher education curriculum, therefore, has to promote such attitudes as are necessary for the emergence of a new economic order. Alongwith the vocational competencies and skills a new work culture will have to be created which necessarily involves the inculcation of dignity of work, the spirit of self-reliance and scientific temper among students. The courses of teacher education need to be enriched to enable teachers to understand the attributes of modernity and development.

Social Problems : Casteism, communalism and regionalism are some of the problems in the body politic of the society which misguide the youth. Increasing delinquency, violence, terrorism and fissiparous tendencies and use of inappropriate means to get one's ends served are threats to the national integration and social cohesion. Democracy, violence and terrorism cannot coexist. Education has to develop a peace loving personality and the programme of teacher education has to contribute in this regard.

The explosion of population with all its allied disturbing trends is not only neutralising the economic gains but also creating many problems for the country. Indian society still suffers from evils like child labour, child marriage, untouchability, discriminatory treatment to women, violation of human rights, etc. and most of the people are unaware of their legal rights.

Modern model of development which puts man against nature by making it an object of exploitation has disturbed the harmony and equilibrium between the two. Its consequences are visible in serious environmental degradation, pollution and ecological imbalances.

Strengthening national and social cohesion in a diverse and plural society, accelerating the process of economic growth, improving the life of the downtrodden and the people living below the poverty line, removing the widely prevalent ignorance, superstition and prejudices from the masses, inculcating scientific temper and developing a critical awareness about the social realities of Indian life are some of the issues which call for immediate attention. Teachers and the teacher educators have a special role to play in such efforts.

Problems of Cultural Reconstruction: Education is the process of transmission of dynamic and responsive components of cultural heritage and its continuous enrichment. There is a need to reinterpret the Indian culture in its distinct identity and composite strength. Its capacity to absorb the sublime from the other cultures needs to be highlighted. The teachers will have to play their role in cultural transmission and reconstruction.

Crises of Values and Morality : There has been a persistent erosion of values in the society. In the present day context certain values need to be redefined and reinstalled. There are situations when the values imparted and inculcated in schools are not generally practised in society. Value education demands a planned and purposive approach. It is through education and as of necessity through teacher education programmes that the task of inculcating values can be substantially accomplished. Whereas values are emotive, the other related significant dimension is that of moral education which is essentially conative in character. Morals are situation-specific and demand immediate decision and action and yet there are morals which are considered to be eternal and universal. Through committed teachers, the art of ensuring moral development in a secular, multi-religious and multi-ethnic society needs to be cultivated.

The nation has yet to fulfil the constitutional commitment to provide free and compulsory education to all children till they attain 14 years of age. India is also a party to the global commitment for achieving the goal of Education for All by the year 2000. The education system however, has to respond to several major issues and problems which have hindered the progress in this regard. Maintenance of educational standards against the pressure of increasing enrolment, relevance and quality of school education, efficacy of school functioning under the decentralized role of political power through the enactment of Panchayati Raj Act are some of the pertinent issues. In addition, specific requirements and need of social and economical groups of the society and of the minority communities, vocationalization of education, scientific and technological literacy, alienation of youth, rush for urbanisation, perceived urban orientation of educational system and its inflexibility to respond to rural, tribal and regional requirements are some of the dominant issues. These would determine the nature and shape of teacher education programmes and the efficacy and functioning of teachers in their new and emerging multifaceted roles.

Isolation of Teacher Education: Teacher education institutions which were considered 'islands of isolation' have gradually developed linkages with schools, peer institutions, universities and other institutions of higher learning as also the community. However, much remains to be done in this direction. The curriculum of the school, its actual transactional modalities, examination system, management processes and its ethos need to be the main thrust areas of teacher education programmes. To achieve these ends, teacher educators need to be made conversant with various aspects of school experiences. It is observed in day-to-day functioning that teacher educators often tend to lose contact with content areas relevant to their own disciplines resulting into gaps in communication and latest information. It is, therefore, a felt need in the present-day context that teacher education institutions keep in continuous touch with institutions of higher learning and peer institutions for effective transmission of knowledge and its upgradation.

The breaking of isolation from the community is essential for enabling teachers and teacher educators to reconstruct pedagogical and educational principles and practices in the light of experiences gained from mutually beneficial community interactions. Teacher as a professional and intellectual cannot remain indifferent to the events that are taking place in society. The academic and social issues are inter-related and inter-dependent. In contemporary context, the role of the teacher is no longer confined to teaching alone. The teachers are expected to play an active role in the developmental activities responding to progress of the community.

Expanding Scope of Teacher Education : Education of teachers is not an end in itself. Its target is the school. Any change in the nature, purpose, quality and character of the school demands a concomitant change in teacher education, specially in its curriculum. The implementation of the 10 + 2 scheme at the school level has transformed the complexion of education to a considerable extent from the pre-primary to the + 2 stage. There has been an increase not only in the quantum of knowledge, but also in its nature and purpose. In addition, new transactional techniques and strategies have also been evolved. Certain new subjects have replaced the old ones whereas some others have changed their context, content, orientation, theme and philosophy. These changes at the school level, out of necessity, demand a new pedagogy and evaluation techniques. But the changes at the level of teacher education have not adequately responded to the emerging realities at the school level. All that the teachers are expected to do in their work places need to be reflected in the teacher education activities and programmes.

The teaching community has to face the challenges thrown by science and technology. There has been an explosion not only of scientific and technological knowledge but also in the means and techniques of acquiring knowledge. The scientific researches and developments related to theories of heredity, learning, mental health, neurology, attention, motivation etc. can no longer be treated alien to teacher education programmes.

Evolving a Culture-Specific Pedagogy : Every region and state has its typical cultural identity, and there is a need to utilise the same as a basis for developing meaningful, relevant pedagogies. Since there is no one universal way in which the children learn, there is a strong need for looking into the cultural context in which a child is placed. A child in a tribal society may process information in an altogether different manner as compared to the one from the urban area and high socio-economic stratum. Pedagogy, therefore, should be culture-specific. Cultural practices such as story-telling, dramatics, puppetry, folk-play, community living, etc. should become a strong basis of pedagogy instead of using one uniform, mechanistic way of student learning. Cultural specificity should get embedded in the pedagogical practices which should be evolved for tribal, rural, urban communities and other ethnic groups.

A learning society visualises education as a continuing activity. This is equally applicable to teacher education. The policy stipulation on inseparability of the pre-service and in-service education of teachers and emphasis on continuing education need to be given pragmatic shape at the implementation stage. The curriculum of pre-service and in-service teacher education has to be redesigned to maintain continuity between the two. Teachers who are being educated today will have to devote major part of their life to education during the twentyfirst century. If the present rate of explosion of knowledge continues, in a few years the teachers will find themselves in a world where their present knowledge and teaching skills to an extent would become obsolete. They will have to face the challenge of electronic media and information technology.

One of the major inputs towards enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in schools as well as the teacher education institutions would be the extent to which research outputs and the outcomes of innovations are utilized by the system. Researches on teacher education have been and are being conducted in universities, national level institutions and other establishments but their utility for the teacher educator or the classroom teacher remains rather low. Majority of the researches are undertaken to obtain a degree and hence the focus on its possible utility and relevance gets misplaced. The situation is compounded by non-availability of appropriate dissemination mechanisms, like journals, publication of findings in different forms and opportunities to the target group to get an access to these. Institutional capabilities and resources need to be augmented, enabling them to undertake relevant researches.

There is a definite requirement of bringing in research methods and methodologies in appropriate form in teacher education at preservice and inservice programmes. To an extent, it finds a place in master level courses in education though in some universities the same is not insisted upon. The structure and design of future courses and programmes need to take this aspect into account. Preparation of teacher educators can no longer be completed without adequate grounding in various aspects of research. Researches must respond to policy issues, curriculum issues, evaluative procedures and practices, training strategies, classroom practices etc. The areas of teacher preparation for children with special needs, gifted children and children from groups with specific cultural, social and economic needs can no longer be ignored. Surveys and studies also need to be encouraged. These may be exploratory or diagnostic in nature. The new initiatives and innovations need to be encouraged and studied. Wherever considered appropriate, these could be brought into the system of teacher education for wider and gainful use.

The concept of field interaction and laboratory area approach in the context of establishment of DIETs is indeed timely. Researches, innovations and surveys must become an integral part of the training programmes of teacher education institutions irrespective of the stages. The trainees need to be familiarised with innovations in general and innovative practices in teacher education in particular.

The factors and forces influencing teacher education are many, some of which have been discussed in the preceding sections, certain others are being mentioned hereunder:

In the light of context and concerns teacher education institutions will acquire a wider spectrum of functions and greater responsibilities. Resolution of specific functions from the spectrum will have to be made depending upon the institutional capabilities. It is visualised that the following institutional functions will have to be undertaken by different institutions according to availability of resources :-

A major concern in school education is the quality and relevance of education being imparted to young learners. Every learner is supposed to acquire mastery level learning in identified competency areas. NCTE has analysed the existing curriculum of teacher education from the point of view of competency areas. It has emerged that to enhance the quality of school education equal emphasis needs to be given to competencies, commitment and willingness to perform. A curriculum framework based upon competencies, commitments and performance has been developed. Competency areas namely, contextual competencies, conceptual, content, transactional, related to other educational activities, developing teaching learning material, evaluation, management, working with parents and working with community and other agencies, have been identified as critical to teacher preparation at elementary stage.

Acquisition of competencies alone will not be sufficient until and unless the teacher is fully committed. Teacher commitment areas identified include commitment to the learner, commitment to the society, commitment to the profession, commitment to attaining excellence for professional actions and commitment to basic values.

Alongwith competency and commitment areas, performance areas have also been identified. These include classroom performance, school level performance, performance in the out-of school educational activities, parents related performance and community related performance. Teacher education institutions could identify details in each of the three major categories. For each competency, commitment and performance area, the existing curriculum needs to be analyzed. Whenever certain unit of curriculum is taken up for transaction, its relationship to commitment and performance has to be examined. Such an approach would provide an opportunity to the training institutions to prepare teachers who are not only competent but also committed and both these aspects are reflected in their performance leading to higher learning attainments by all children.

The critical analyses of the context and concerns presented in the preceding sections help in developing a vision for teacher education in future. In the Indian situation basic character of the framework must provide for adequate and inbuilt flexibility for incorporating the regional and local specificities. Total trust in the capabilities of institutions and organisations to develop an indigenous, comparable and area-specific curriculum has to be the guiding principle.

Teacher education has to be conceived as an integral part of educational and social system and must primarily respond to the requirements of the school system. It can no longer remain conventional and static but should transform itself to a progressive dynamic and responsive system. National values and goals need to be meaningfully reflected and their inculcation attempted with care and caution. The theoretical and practical components need to be balanced appropriately. The theory and practice of education has to be enriched with the latest research findings not only in the field of education but also in the allied disciplines and areas. While it is essential to develop identified competencies to prepare effective teachers it is equally necessary to develop commitment and build capacity to perform as integral part of teacher preparation. The teachers have to keep abreast of the latest developments not only in their field of specialisation but also in areas of educational developments and social and cultural issues through continuous inservice orientation. Emphasis on continuing life-long learning has to become an essential concern of teacher education. A nation concerned with erosion of values needs teachers who are professionally committed and prepared to present a value-based model of interaction with their learners. The basic tenets identified in the national basic education scheme - Head, Heart and Hand need now to be linked to another 'H' - highways. Information highways, websites and internet are going to become terms of common usage in teacher education. For sound mind we need strong hand and a vibrant heart. Areas like physical education and vocational education will continue to gain greater emphasis in years to come and will serve as the basis for developing competencies and skills in addition to commitments and values.

A comprehensive theoretical base is essential for a teacher to assume professional role and develop capacity to conceptualise inputs from other disciplines as well and evolve strategies to utilise them. A true professional is capable of perceiving complexities and uncertainties in the society, has a thorough grasp of the subject, possesses skills to make critical diagnosis, takes decisions and has courage and conviction to implement such decisions.

Teacher education by its very nature is interdisciplinary. The major areas of inter-disciplinarity implicit in teacher education programmes include philosophy, psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, history and culture. Recent researches in medical and life sciences are opening new avenues of knowledge which are relevant to education. Besides, teacher education has an essential and inalienable component of practical work including student teaching, internship, field work, working with the community, work education, etc. The country needs teachers with different orientation and specialisations to manage educational programmes. In addition, the teachers are also needed for physical education, music, art, painting, dance, work education and vocational subjects and for the non-formal stream, distance education, adult education, and open learning system. The scope of teacher education curriculum, therefore, gets enlarged.

The curriculum for teacher preparation, in future has to emcompass the broader canvas which is consistently emerging before the teachers and shall continue to change at a much faster pace in times ahead. Teachers shall have to take a global view of the new trends, strategies and practices, and focus on indigenous heritage and thoughts which could fit in the local and national situations. Transplantation of alien educational ideas and practices has not been found rewarding in developing countries. Consequently, the emerging structures and designs of the curriculum shall lay greater emphasis on the ideas, practices and experiences that have emerged in India through the contributions of thinkers like Mahatma Gandhi, Vivekanand, Rabindra Nath Tagore, Zakir Hussain, Sri Aurobindo, Giju Bhai and many others.

The teacher education programmes shall focus on competencies and commitment in much greater magnitude in future. Such a transformation in teacher preparation strategies would emerge only after due familiarity and adequate appreciation of indigenous thoughts developed over decades in India. Gradually an indigenous approach and strategy would emanate and replace the alien practices that have remained in vogue in teacher education over the decades.

The profile of a teacher which emanates from the contexts and concerns necessarily implies additional roles besides the conventional ones. The following capabilities and competencies need to be highlighted:

- inculcating the intrinsic and extrinsic values of professional competency, professional commitment and professional ethics

- creating and reconstructing knowledge

- selecting, organising and using learning resources

- effectively transacting curriculum, selecting and organising educational activities and programmes for learners with special needs

- using media and appropriate instructional technologies

- communicating effectively and responding to the challenges of continuity and change

- counselling students for personality development, adjustment and learning attainment

- conducting research, especially action research and initiating innovative practices

- organising student-activities

- inculcating a sense of value judgement, value commitment and value transmission

- understanding the import of inter-relationship between culture and education and 'culture and personality’

- fostering interest in life-long learning

- understanding the aspirations and expectations of the community and establishing mutually supportive linkages between school and community

- acting as a change agent for modernisation and development

The educational programmes for prospective teachers, therefore, need to be so designed as to develop in them the requisite potential and capabilities.

The general objectives of teacher education derived from the contexts, concerns and issues of education, teacher education and the perceived profile of the teacher, could include the following:

An overview of the context and concerns as discussed earlier, teacher's profile and general and specific objectives would define the boundaries of a curriculum framework. The perceived characteristics of the envisaged curriculum framework would include the following:

The need for early childhood education has long been emphasised on the argument that it would lead to providing healthy and wholesome learning environment. It is also considered as a preparatory stage for the realisation of Universalisation of Elementary Education. In order to provide healthy and enriched childhood to young learners, a new type of teacher specifically sensitized about the perspectives of child development will be required.

The enrichment programmes for early childhood education have been launched under Integrated Child Development Scheme through Anganwadis, Day Care Centres, Balwadies, Pre-primary Schools run by the State Governments, Municipal Corporations, Voluntary Agencies and Private Agencies. All such efforts, though not adequately provided for, are continuing with diverse approaches without making a synergic impact. Concerted efforts are needed for organising early childhood education in a planned manner. It presupposes pooling of resources by the community as well as the concerned agencies.

In order that early childhood education becomes a reality, in terms of its organisation and accessibility, one of the significant inputs in making a success story of it is that of a professionally trained and committed teacher. The professional preparation of teachers for this stage, hitherto unplanned and uncared for, calls for thoughtful planning of training sequences relevant to the developmental needs of early childhood interwoven with commonalities and specificities.

- to prepare teachers for facilitating physical, mental, moral, social, aesthetic and linguistic development of children

- to cultivate social sensitivity, affection for children and respect for their uniqueness

- to acquaint them with techniques of caring for children and enable them to identify their needs

- to provide experiences and organise activities that promote children’s self-concept, creativity and inventiveness

- to enable them to select, prepare and use different kinds of resource materials

- to develop a sense of involvement with and appreciation of local resources (human and material) and their utilisation

- to develop an acquaintance with basics of Scientific and Technological Literacy

- to develop a repertoire of children’s games, songs and literature

- to empower student-teachers towards creating learning readiness among young learners

Curriculum Framework : The framework given here is suggestive and not a prescriptive one. It has considerable space for flexibility, innovation and use of locally available community resources. The following curriculum framework is suggested for formulating a Plan of Action for developing programmes and activities, devising strategies of negotiating the curricular inputs and methods of obtaining feed-back. These are pre-requisites for improving the interaction processes directed towards the realisation of optimum enrichment of experiences at the early childhood stage.

Inclusion of the following components of theory and practice are suggested:

Rationale : The current areas suggested in this framework have been specially designed for understanding early childhood care and education in its realistic perspective. No formal teaching is visualised at early childhood stage. It is not a stage for introducing three R’s. In the preparation of teachers for this stage, therefore, the main thrust will be on sensitizing prospective teachers about change and its implications - cultural, social, economic, etc. as also with the change in the learner through motivation and learning. Future need will be to empower the teacher to observe change, interpret it and adopt, adapt, modify, consolidate, accelarate or reject the same. It is not intended here to suggest details of progrmmes and theoretical content. It is, however, expected that the course on Emerging Indian Society’ will enable the intending teachers to know about the rights of child, human rights, legal literacy, community dynamics, knowledge of national and local festivals, emerging trends in community life and social living, prominent personalities in various walks of life, familiarity with factors and forces affecting environmental and population equilibirium, knowledge and appreciation of places of historical and cultural significance and landmarks and trends of development.

Another theoretical input which is intended to be given to the prospective teachers is regarding knowledge of nature and scope, status, problems and issues concerning early childhood education in India. These need to be understood in terms of Indian reality and perspective, foundations of child behaviour etc. In addition, it may include, among others, progress of early childhood education, its historical development, problems, need for looking at it from the point of view of diversity, flexibility, local relevance and specificities, and the agencies involved in the process of promoting early childhood education.

Basic to designing programmes and activities for children at this stage is a thorough understanding of various aspects of growth and development of the child which the prospective teachers will be required to internalise. Since, it is being recommended for intending teachers of pre-schoolers, it will be necessary to know about the fundamentals of early childhood care and education. Most of the training programmes of teachers for this stage will have major concentration on organisation and activities as mentioned above. In addition, the teachers will be required to have a practical training at early childhood education centres and the like. At this stage, greater emphasis will be given on propagation of early childhood care.

Theory : India is a conglomeration of diversities with a variety of manifestations and yet bound by a thread of commonality. Teacher is expected to recognise commonalities and specificities in order to shape the personality of children for living together in a perpetually changing complex society. The suggested theoretical components included in the framework are essentially, meant for broadening the intellectual horizons of intending teachers who will become conversant with the culture and traditions of the country with due appreciation of the diversities. The seeds of democratic living are sown from the beginning of childhood and education needs to be regarded as a vehicle for maintaining equilibirium in the growth of individuals from childhood to adulthood.

It would be worth experimenting with modular approach of teaching combined with interventions of realistic nature by way of field trips, visit to museums, zoo, educational excursions, visit to mountains, forests, intermediary interventions with real life situations and through audio-video devices, wherever possible. Teaching in teacher training institutions be directed towards empowering prospective teachers to enable to use their experiences in actual work places for enhancing growth and development of young children.

There is to be a planned amalgam of theory and practice in a way that these two constitute a continuum of experiences. The teaching of theoretical components, in addition to what has been elaborated above, will combine various methods and approaches like lecturing, tutorials, seminars, term-papers, discussion groups, gaming, role planning, etc.

Pedagogy : The teachers at this stage are being initiated into and introduced to the art of teaching. Teaching to them is romance with innovativeness and inventiveness. It is love for children. It is caring for children. It is seeking for optimum enrichment of experiences of children. It is providing happiness to children. It is making their stay joyful in schools. The early childhood education includes transacting developmentally appropriate curriculum which includes within its fold concept development, convergent and divergent thinking, creative activities, language acquisition, etc. It is an arduous task of equipping prospective teachers with competencies and skills needed for making the learning experiences of a child joyful and memorable. It must be admitted that the training of pre-school teachers is complex and full of challenges.

The pedagogical aspects of training will be planned around activities and programmes for children, attending to their needs, identifying interests of learners by gender and their background, identifying children with special needs and devising strategies for their optimum growth and development, organising games, recreational activities, plays, etc.

Practicum : Theory and practicum have to be linked and integrated in the training process. Much of what goes by way of practicals is intrinsically related with pedagogy and much of the essence of pedagogy lies in the practical work. The practical work may include comprehensive case studies of children including children with special needs, gifted children, children coming from different socio-economic and cultural backgrounds, etc. Development and use of schedules, assessment checklists and other evaluation tools and techniques will form an important aspect of practicum. The maximum utilisation of environmental and community resources can be done only when the teacher is thoroughly conversant with environmental resources. Community survey, therefore, is one of the several activities of practical work which requires systematic exploration.

The practical work of the prospective teachers will centre around evolving and devising programmes and activities for physical, psychomotor, cognitive, emotional and other aspects of development. Health and hygiene, habit formation, are certain other areas which require practical work. In addition, art, drawing and painting, using clay/plasticin, music, dance, recreation, story telling, games, and physical activity are a variety of examples of other practical experiences which a student teacher will be required to undertake for creative expression of children.

Evaluation: Evaluation for the theoretical component may include assessment of sessional work, term-papers, participation in seminars, discussion groups, etc. besides semester examinations which can be oral, written, practical and objective type. The written tests have to be reliable, valid and representative of the totality of experiences. Different tools and techniques of evaluation can be used for assessing the pupils’ growth. Visits to and partcipation in activities of Anganwadis, Balwadis, Day Care Centres will make a part of training towards understanding the dynamics of working with children and educating them. The evaluation of this component is will be in the form of a cumulative record of the performance of the intending teachers. External evaluation of practical activities will defeat the purpose as the practical work is, by and large, activity-based. It is essentially sessional work, day-to-day internal assessment, feed back and monitoring. A record of some of the activities is all that may be suggested for purposes of evaluation in this regard.

The constitutional provision of providing free and compulsory education to all children upto 14 years of age includes both the lower primary and upper primary classes, that is from class I to class VIII. There seems to be a compelling need for having multiple models for preparing teachers - for primary and upper primary classes. Incidentally, in a number of Elementary Teacher Education Institutions (ETEIs) in the country, the nomenclature of the training programme from pre-service training of primary school teachers has been changed to pre-service training of elementary school teachers. But in actuality, the transformation in programmes has yet to take place effectively.

There are three distinct possibilities of designing courses in teacher education for elementary stage:

- Teacher education programme exclusively for primary school stage (Classes I to V).

- Teacher education programme for elementary school stage (Classes I to VIII).

- Teacher education programme exclusively for upper primary school stage (Classes VI to VIII).

In view of the requirements of Universal Primary Education and Universal Elementary Education, only the first two alternatives are being recommended. However, the third suggested above, could be attempted by offering credit oriented modular courses after successful completion of primary teacher education programmes. It is significant to note that we have nearly 5.98 lakh primary schools which are mostly in rural areas as compared to upper primary schools numbering about 1.76 lakhs only*.

Specific Objectives : The formulation of curriculum framework for this stage (classes I to V) has been guided by general and specific objectives of teacher education and perceived characteristics of curriculum development. The specific objectives of primary teacher education may include the following:

Keeping in view the teacher profile particularly the facilitative and resource management aspects, general and specific objectives of teacher education, the following framework which is flexible with ample scope for adaptation and for making it relevant to local enviornment is being suggested :

Rationale : The teacher needs to be empowered through training inputs to gain greater insights into the complexities of the society and the historical perspective of the developmental process. The paper on Emerging Indian Society is being introduced at this stage with a purpose of making the teacher aware of the contextual realities in which he or she has to work. The paper would take into account rights of children, human rights education, values and their broad features, perspectives of educational, social, economic and political development in the country, significant landmarks in the process of development in various fields including science and technology, etc. Theoretical component is essential for understanding the learner, community and the society, the internal and external forces impinging upon the school and the internal and external variables operating upon the learner. The inclusion of Courses on Psychology of Teaching and Learning, Health and Physical Education, Education of Children with Special Needs has been made for accommodating this point of view in the Framework.

In the proposed training programmes, the prospective teachers would be imparted training in a manner that theory and practice are organically integrated. Correlation within the curricular areas of learning and external environment is established. Psychology of Teaching and Learning, School Organisation and Pedagogical Analysis of primary school subjects will provide a sound base for the adoption of integrated approach to teaching and learning and for establishing meaningful and interactive bonds between theory and practice. The intent of including Action Research and Education of Children with Special Needs is guided by the fact that every student-teacher is expected to know the elements of action research, surveys, community services etc and is capable of educating children with special needs. Additional areas may be included for making the course content relevant and region specific.

Theory : Transactional strategies invariably need to emphasise interactive, partcipative and activity-oriented approach. The transaction of curriculum will have place to place and intra-and inter-content variations. The theoretical component of the curriculum can be transacted by lecture-discussion, self-study approach, seminars, media supported teaching wherever possible, tutorials and through practical activities. It is expected that the intending teachers during the course of training acquire mastery of competencies and skills that are basic to making an effective, reflective and committed teacher.

Pedagogy : Practice teaching remains to be a weak link of curriculum transaction. This point of view has been substantiated and re-inforced by field surveys conducted by NCTE at different places throughout the country. In this framework, pedagogical analysis of school teaching subjects has been thought of as an essential component of practice teaching. By way of pedagogical analysis a student teacher becomes conversant with the objectives of teaching a unit, the entry behaviour of pupils, classroom management and evaluation strategies. With this background of having looked into the pedagogical aspects of school teaching subjects, the student teacher is likely to become more effective and confident in his/her interventions in the classroom. As a necessary part of the training of primary school teachers, knowledge of content is given due importance during the course of training. Mastery of subject matter, the insight gained through pedagogical analysis and the foundation courses when thoughtfully integrated and used for classroom instruction will lead to improving the quality of education.

Practicum : Practical work is an essential component for internalising the theoretical concepts. Thus it will have to be planned on each aspect of theoretical inputs. In addition, practical activities centring around different school experiences, work education, school community interaction, action research projects and other educational activities directed towards development of personality of students will also be undertaken by intending teachers. It needs continuous planning, analysing, monitoring and evaluation throughout the duration of the course which will necessitate the involvement of teacher educators more vigorously than what it is presently.

Evaluation : It is expedient to employ the formative evaluation for obtaining continuous feedback, motivating students and guiding their efforts. There is an increasing felt need to replace external examinations by internal continuous and comprehensive examination system. External system of evaluation, until such times it is replaced, may be perceived as a corrective, moderating and balancing factor. It, therefore, needs to be carefully planned and testing tools made valid and reliable. In different situations evaluation of theoretical component may be based on essay questions, short answer type questions, objective type questions, objective-based questions, oral examinations, participation in discussion groups etc.

Evaluation of practice teaching can be done internally, externally or through judicious combination of both. Gradual transition to continuous and comprehensive internal evaluation of practice teaching and assigning grades instead of marks would be a professionally sound step. Evaluation of practical work would also be done internally.

Justification : The justification for suggesting a separate model of teacher education curriculum for the elementary stage in addition to the one suggested for primary stage is given below;

- There is a constitutional commitment for providing compulsory education upto 14 years of age.

- The gradual transition of the teaching and learning processes from concrete operational stage of development to abstract reasoning process and change over of teaching-learning strategies from one stage to another needs to be ingrained in the minds of teachers for ensuring a continuum of learning experiences from class I to class VIII and matching the learning experiences with the maturity of learners. The present status does not reflect the gradual transition implicit in the development of thought processes from one stage to another.

The formulation of the curriculum framework for the elementary stage will also be guided by general and specific objectives of teacher education and characteristics of curriculum development.

Specific Objectives : The specific objectives relevant to the stage may include the following :

- to develop understanding of the psychological and sociological principles relevant to elementary stage of education.

- to enable teachers to select, prepare and use appropriate resources for organising learning experiences.

- to acquaint them with methods and materials of teaching children with special needs

- to develop among them the capacity to solve the social and emotional problems of children.

- to enable them acquire necessary skills so as to develop curiosity, imagination and self-confidence among children.

- to develop communication skills

- to enable them to mobilise and utilise community resources as educational inputs.

- to enable them to organise supplementry educational activities

- to enable them to organise games, sports, physical activities and other co-curricular activities.

- Action Research

It is expected that detailed curriculum plan would adequately provide for aesthetics, culture, arts, music, dance, drama, value inculcation, etc.

Rationale : The course on Emerging Indian Society will enable the prospective teachers to understand the demands that society expects education to fulfil. Similarly, proposed course on 'Elementary Education in India - status, problems and issues' will promote the capacity to examine if these expectations can really be met. The course on Psychology of Teaching and Learning will teach them how to formulate their teaching strategies to promote learning among children. Health and Physical Education will enable them to plan exercises for development of sound physiques of formative evaluation. They will be able to deal with children with special needs and adopting problem solving approach, a capacity built by Action Research. The course on counselling and guidance will enable them to help children when they are confronted with problem of any kind.

The pedagogical analysis will provide the prospective teachers an understanding of the complexity involved in the teaching of the subjects at the elementary level. This will enable them to plan their educational strategies. A critical observation of model lessons and practice teaching in the actual class room situation will make them effective and competent teachers.

Internship in a school will offer the prospective teachers the varied experiences needed for working in a school. They will internalise educational value of the work and experience the dignity of manual work. The school community interaction would not only promote the interactive support between both but also enable them to evolve suitable pedagogy for children. The organization of education activities will develop the capacity for planning and undertaking such activities as are essential for the development of personalty of the student. The theoretical and practical courses suggested in this frame are capable of preparing a competent elementary school teacher.

Transactional Strategies : The prospective teachers are to be prepared as to enable them to perform successfully in the pre-instructional, instructional and post-instructional phases of teaching. For this, several well-designed approaches like lecture discussion cooperative study, self-study and project methods etc. may be adopted. Depending on the nature of the subject, the teachers may combine different strategies and instructional aids, utilize media supported teaching, organise field trips and practicals and demonstration techniques. In this process due attention be given to children with special needs. The curriculum transaction will have to be adjusted with the needs of students and locally available resources.

During the process of teaching and learning, the existing transactional strategies marginally promote the capacity for independent study, self-discovery and self-study and rarely seek prospective teachers' participation and remain one way traffic with the result that the subject matter communicated is partially assimilated and not fully utilized. Teacher education has to inculcate professional commitment, develop competencies and make teacher reflective to deal with specific situations.

Practice teaching, the weakest link of teacher education, possesses the potentiality of converting itself into a strong component if properly organized. The process of curriculum transaction needs improvement and enrichment. Pedagogical analysis of teaching subjects is sure to refine teaching and learning as it will transform the teachers' performance and develop competencies not covered by the method-cum-content approach. With the background of pedagogical analysis and model and demonstration lessons given by the teacher educator, the class room performance is sure to improve if it is supervised in detail by the subject specialist.

Work education is an important component of practical work and its potentiality has to be utilized by teacher education for developing certain qualities of character. Community surveys helps to formulate a proper social perspective. The mutually supported school and community interaction helps the teachers to evolve suitable teaching strategies.

The teachers will be required to organise educational activities in school. They have to learn to plan and organize such activities as are essential to provide opportunities for self-expression and lead to development of personality of students. They have to be trained for utilizing supplementary materials essential for accelerating and promoting learning among students.

The teachers will be required to facilitate physical, social, emotional and aesthetic development of students. Their creative and constructive potentialities have to be fostered. Practical activities suggested in the document will help to achieve these ends. It is, therefore, necessary to organize these activities on continuing basis. The influence of teachers' personality and behaviour has lasting impact on students. In the selection and adoption of transactional strategies the teacher has to ensure that teaching becomes participatory, cooperative, activity-centred and joyful.

Evaluation : The success or failure of the curriculum transaction is ascertained by evaluation done by means of valid and reliable tools. At this stage, evaluation has to be continuous, formative and comprehensive to bring improvement in teaching learning process. Systematic evaluation will enable a teacher to select proper teaching strategies and effect suitable changes in the curriculum process.

The evaluation of the pupil teachers at the elementary stage will not differ much from the primary stage and the same principles and similar practices which have been adopted at the primary level may be utilized at this stage.

For teaching at secondary stage, the qualification most sought after is one year B.Ed. which is in fact B.Ed. for secondary stage. However, at present, there are several variations for first degree level qualification which are also available. These include B.Ed. (Elementary); B.Ed. (Special Education); which too are programmes of one year duration; B.Ed. through correspondence or distance education mode which is now of two years duration. There are certain other variations in the form of vacation courses or part-time courses which were available before NCTE norms came into force. In addition, there are four-year integrated courses for elementary stage and also for secondary stage.

Teacher education programme at this stage, like at all other stages, will include the theory, practice teaching in schools, and practical work in the light of contexts, concerns, profile of teachers and general and specific objectives.

Specific Objectives : The specific objectives at this stage may include the following:

- to enable the prospective teachers to understand the nature, purpose and philosophy of secondary education.

- to develop among teachers an understanding of the psychology of their pupils.

- to enable them to understand the process of socialisation.

- to equip them acquire competencies relevent to stage specific pedagogy, curriculum development, its transaction and evaluation.

- to enable them to make pedagogical analysis of the subjects they are to teach at the secondary stage.

- to develop skills for guidance and counselling.

- to acquaint them with factors and forces affecting educational system and class room situation.

- to acquaint them with educational needs of special groups of pupils.

- to enable them to utilise community resources as educational inputs.

- to develop communication skills and use the modern information technology.

- to develop aesthetic sensibilities.

- to acquaint them with research in education including action research

- Emerging Indian Society

- Secondary Education in India - status, problems and issues

- Psychology of Teaching and Learning

- Guidance and Counselling

- Assessment, Evaluation and Remediation

- School Management

- Comparative Education

- Pre-school Education

- Elementary Education

- Educational Technology

- Vocational Education

- Adult Education

- Non formal Education

- Environmental Education

- Computer Education

- Education of Children with Special Needs

- Health and Physical Education

- History and Problems of Education

- Population Education

- Pedagogical analysis of two school teaching subjects

- Practice teaching in schools

- Internship and School Experiences

- Field Work with community based programmes

- Creativity and Personality Development Programmes

- Work Education

- Sessional/practical work

- Physical Education Activities, games and sports and other school activities

- Aesthetic Development Programmes and Activities.

- Action Research studies

Rationale : A teacher helps in improving the quality of human life in the context of multiple internal and external forces impinging on man and the society. The course on 'Emerging Indian Society', would develop an insight into the nature of Indian society, its variety and complexities and making teacher education programme relevant to the community. Ingenuity of teachers lies in first understanding national ethos and then planning for teaching within this framework as a professional.

A professionally trained teacher is expected to identify the strengths and weaknesses of secondary education in India and after having gained insights into the status, problems and issues concerning education at this stage, develop a mental make-up of evaluating the system and utilising the same for promoting excellence in education.

A teacher in the classroom has to make adjustments in teaching strategy according to the nature and scope of the curriculum and evaluate the success of teaching in terms of students' growth. The foundations of curriculum, pedagogy, evaluation and remediation need to be laid down firmly during the course of professional preparation of teachers. What kind of pedagogical strategy will give optimum results in specific units of curriculum and in what ways the outcomes need to be evaluated will be the main thrust.

Distinct departure from the existing programme is noticeable in including a course on psychology of teaching and learning. The teaching of educational psychology to the B.Ed. trainees was done extensively even earlier but without establishing linkages with actual teaching and learning. The attempt to put teaching and learning together does not in any way undermine the importance of educational psychology. Now the basic thrust will be on teaching - learning processes, group dynamics, learners' background, the internal and external forces of the institution and the community. Psychology of teaching and learning would require adjustments at different levels of schooling and for different grade levels. Foundation courses lend support to refining the education processes implicit in teaching and learning. Comparative perspective of educational systems in developing and developed countries would enable teachers to acquire a global vision of contemporary context and gain greater insight into ways of improving the quality of education.

The understanding of some specific areas of education in detail and in depth is needed for becoming an effective teacher. Guided by this consideration and having been supported through field interactions with different target groups, courses on pre-school education and elementary school education have been included as optionals. Teachers will also be required to get indepth understanding of areas like non-formal alternatives to school education. Similarly avenues for indepth studies in emerging areas of concern like vocational education, environmental education, population education etc. have also been suggested.

The message of educational technology has to reach the classrooms in the form of its application. Prospective teacher has to be so equipped in the course of training as to enable him to think of using appropriate educational technology for improving the quality of instruction and for obtaining optimum results in terms of the students' growth.

Physical education has been considered as an integral part of education. In each system of schooling tremendous amount of emphasis is laid upon building up the cognitive base of students and the affective and psychomotor dimensions of human personality, do not receive adequate attention. A teacher fashioned in the culture of physical education would be conscious of catering to the physical dimension of human personality with concern. The inclusion of this course, however, may not be taken as an alternative to preparing teachers for teaching Physical Education.

Transacting Curriculum : The impact of teacher training programmes has not been perceptible over the years in terms of transacting curriculum in schools. Lecture method, mostly taken recourse to by teacher educators, is generally not supplemented by using instructional materials. Interactive teaching, co-operative teaching-learning, self-discovery approaches seldom find place in the day-to-day teaching practices. What is of importance and calls for top priority in the training programme, is to lay appropriately proportioned emphasis on 'why to teach', 'how to teach' and 'what to teach' aspects of teaching. It has to be reflected in the teaching-learning situations planned by teacher educators.

Theory : Education as a field of specialised studies is inter-disciplinary in its nature. Since different branches of learning are involved in understanding the presage, process and product variables of education, it is essential that formulation of teacher education programmes adopts a holistic approach in order to promote proper understanding, insight and thinking on matters pertaining to this field. The complimentary character of theory and practice needs to be emphasised at every step. The prospective teachers are encouraged to organise, express and communicate their ideas clearly in the class. It has to be accepted as a communicative process of an intensive teacher-learner dialogue and renewal of a two-way process as opposed to 'the banking concept' of teaching. The emphasis must be laid on cultivation, formation and development of power of mind in contrast to the prevalent tendency of aiming at the success in examination alone. Student teachers, it is hoped, in classroom transactions, will employ the use of divergent thinking and problem solving strategy.

The teacher educators will be required to have clarity of thought in respect of components of a course, objectives of teaching, and their relevance to educational and social goals. One of the approaches may be the modular approach. Each module, though a complete teaching unit, remains a part of the total syllabus with built-in linkages and feedback mechanisms. Learning through this approach can be reinforced by library work, seminar readings, tutorials and small group discussions. Self-study and self-motivated learning become an integral part of the curriculum transaction. The outcomes would result in better understanding of concepts better leading to mastery learning.

The interdisciplinary approach in teaching has to be accepted and implemented for developing comprehensive understanding and vision of educational studies. Learning outcomes have to be assessed continuously, which is the basic tenet of the modular approach. This would help in modifying, adjusting and improving transaction strategies for better acquisition of knowledge. Universities have options to evolve their own examination system. Too much reliance on external examinations, however, would inhibit the progress of moving in the direction of quality education.

Student Teaching and Practical Activities : There is no denying the fact that practice of education is as important as its theory. Each good theory leads to a good practice and vice-versa. To strike a balance between theory and the practice of education, therefore, is a matter of judicious planning and scheduling in order to give proper direction to teacher education.

Changes in the pattern and practices of student teaching have been only peripheral. The content-cum-method approach, wherever attempted, remained limited to the introduction of an additional component of content without fully achieving the objective of integration. The problem-solving approach, discovery method, competency based teaching learning and the indigenous contributions, like those of Gandhi, Tagore, Aurobindo, Zakir Hussain and several others have the potential for bringing in innovative ideas in teacher education. The application of educational technology, informatics, telematics, cybernetics etc. have yet to make a discernible headway. The learning resources wherever available in the training institutions and the community as also in the schools have not been optimally utilised.

Prerequisite to preparing a prospective teacher can be thought of in terms of providing certain inputs such as, induction programme, an exposure of school experiences with special focus on the educational environment of the school, socio-economic and cultural background of the community constituting the catchment area, observation of classroom teaching and other related activities etc. Induction programme might include acquainting the intending teachers with the school settings, the school programmes - curricular and co-curricular. In addition, they will be prepared for actual classroom teaching and the roles they are expected to assume during the course of practice teaching/internship by way of focussed discussions, demonstration lessons, preparation of lesson plans in a way as to encompass teaching for cognitive, affective and psychomotor development.

Practice teaching is essentially a joint responsibility of teacher training institution and the school involving teacher educators, prospective teachers and school teachers. Teacher educators will help in facilitating and guiding the activities as implied by the pre-instructional, instructional and post-instructional phases through which a student teacher has to progress. The role of a school teacher in this joint effort lies in extending cooperation to the teacher educator and the intending teacher. Various aspects as referred to above will have to be suitably adapted to varying structures and designs at different stages of teacher education.

Practical work other than classroom instruction can be viewed in terms of school and community experiences and activities related to personality and leadership development.

Efforts need to be directed towards developing in a teacher trainee certain competencies and skills which would be helpful in the shaping of a teacher for effective role play. It is essentially directed towards capacity building which may embrace, among other competencies, managerial skills , organisational efficiency, leadership skills, democratic attitudes, innovative and creative abilities etc.

The teachers' role, which they will be required to play in the school situation other than classroom teaching, may extend to a variety of activities, such as, maintenance of school records and registers, management of laboratories and library, preparation, repair and selection of instructional aids and equipments, selection and preparation of textual materials, preparation of tests and assignments, admission and selection of students, maintenance of progress reports of students, preparation of school budget and development plans, beautification of school and classroom management etc. The institutional activities within the school environs may include dramatic clubs, stage activities, literary activities, inter-house activities and sports and games, organisation of educational tours, etc.

Community Experiences : Interaction between the institution and community is gaining importance in the modern context. One can think of several activities promoting school-community relationship, such as, celebration of birthdays of children, celebration of parents day, activating parent- teacher association for the welfare of the schools, organisation of school and community games, sports and other functions, utilization of community resources for education, understanding the background of children, celebration of national days in collaboration with the community, environmental education , adult literacy, plantation and social forestry.

Likewise, community involvement and school development activities may lead to community awareness generating competency through community - institution interaction activities; mobilizing community resources for organising literacy programmes, environmental education, work education programme, health awareness programmes, etc. It is expected that organisation of such activities would lead to developing self confidence and initiative among student teachers and also develop among them positive attitude towards plurality of cultures.

Practical Work: The modalities to be employed for organising activities other than teaching for all round capacity building and empowerment of a teacher-trainee will i